
The basis of most modern technology is the manipulation of electromagnetic phenomena. Haisch, Rueda
and Putho® (1994a) published a controversial but substantive formulation of a concept proposing an explanation
of inertia of matter as an electromagnetic phenomenon originating in the zero-point ¯eld (ZPF) of the
quantum vacuum. This suggests that Newton's equation of motion can be derived from Maxwell's equations
of electrodynamics, in that inertial mass is postulated to be not an intrinsic property of matter but rather a
kind of electromagnetic drag force (which temporarily is a place holder for a more general quantum vacuum
reaction e®ect) that proves to be acceleration dependent by virtue of the spectral characteristics of the ZPF.
Moreover the principle of equivalence implies that in this view gravitation would also be electromagnetic in
origin along the lines proposed by Sakharov (1968). A NASA-funded research e®ort has been underway at
the Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center in Palo Alto and at California State University in Long
Beach to develop and test these ideas. An e®ort to generalize the 1994 ZPF-inertia concept into a proper
relativistic formulation has been successful. With regard to the goals of the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion
Physics Program we can, on the basis of the ZPF-inertia concept, de¯nitively rule out one speculatively hypothesized
propulsion mechanism: matter possessing negative inertial mass, a concept originated by Bondi
(1957). The existence of this is shown to be logically impossible. On the other hand, the linked ZPF-inertia
and ZPF-gravity concepts open the conceptual possibility of manipulation of inertia and gravitation, since
both are postulated to be electromagnetic phenomena. Whether this will translate into actual technological
potential, especially with respect to spacecraft propulsion and future interstellar travel capability, is an open
question. The (possibly comparable) time scale for translation of Einstein's E = mc2 mass-energy relation
into nuclear technology was approximately four decades. A key question is whether the proposed ZPF-matter
interactions generating the phenomenon of mass might involve one or more resonances. This is presently
under investigation.
INTRODUCTION
In spite of the success of special and general relativity, which embody our best understanding of the
relationship between mass and energy, the fundamental nature of mass has remained a complete mystery.
There are four characteristics of matter that involve some aspect of the property of mass. (1) Inertial mass:
the resistance to acceleration known as inertia, de¯ned in Newton's equation of motion, F = ma, and its
relativistic generalization. (2) Active gravitational mass: the ability of matter to attract other matter via
Newtonian gravitation, or, from the perspective of general relativity, the ability to curve spacetime. (3)
Passive gravitational mass: the propensity of matter to respond to gravitational forces. (4) Relativistic or
rest mass: the relationship of mass and energy expressed in the E = mc2 relation of special relativity. These
are very di®erent properties of matter, yet for some reason they are quantitatively represented by the same
parameter. One can imagine a universe, for example, in which inertial mass, mi, and passive gravitational
mass, mg, were di®erent: : : but then objects would not all fall with the same acceleration in a gravitational
¯eld and there would be no principle of equivalence to serve as the foundation of general relativity. One
can imagine a universe in which active and passive gravitational mass were di®erent: : : but then Newton's
third law of equal and opposite forces would be violated, and mechanics as we know it would be impossible.
Another fundamental characteristic of mass is that objects that possess mass (i.e. matter) are limited to
speeds less than the speed-of-light, c, whereas massless entities such as photons cannot move at any speed
other than c.
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