Bulla and The Rose and The Four Snakes, page 14

Originally posted by AussieAmandaC
reply to post by bulla

---

Going to study them more now, I wanted to also give you something...

link

I will not pretend to understand all that you've said, it would be a lie, but the things that stuck were seeded there already and makes a lot of sense to me when added to your own.

brilliant thread

Thank you for such a wonderful link, that has now opened the doorway to the crop circles which I have previous replied that, I was not fully understanding, but, I admit, to over site, and tell you now, I understand there meanings, this thread will be remembered for drawing all the knowledge into perspective into mans wisdom and his capabilities

reply to post by bulla

---

You are most welcome.

Which book might that be, for the avid reader who hasn't yet read it?

Originally posted by AussieAmandaC
reply to post by bulla

---

You are most welcome.

Which book might that be, for the avid reader who hasn't yet read it?

I do not yet possess the wisdom of computers as yet to busy with Quantum Atomic optics you understand, but I can give you a very enlightening link as to where Nostradamus explains same, please except it in exchange for you link of wisdom

if you were to source , and hoping this doesn't or is not seen publishing any magazine as this is where you will find the tools to deign ignorance source the magazine New Dawn special issue 4 and within a very comprehensive article by Victoria LE Page that dose explain what I point out but I think unknowing If I can be so propitious

Originally posted by bulla

Originally posted by AussieAmandaC
reply to post by bulla

---

You are most welcome.

Which book might that be, for the avid reader who hasn't yet read it?

I do not yet possess the wisdom of computers as yet to busy with Quantum Atomic optics you understand, but I can give you a very enlightening link as to where Nostradamus explains same, please except it in exchange for you link of wisdom

if you were to source , and hoping this doesn't or is not seen publishing any magazine as this is where you will find the tools to deign ignorance source the magazine New Dawn special issue 4 and within a very comprehensive article by Victoria LE Page that dose explain what I point out but I think unknowing If I can be so propitious

correction of the correction of the correction in case its a nasty word I wanted to say presumptuous, what ever the computer put in there Im not yet sure yet what it means (propitious ) ? !

reply to post by bulla

---

Tnx for answering, still trying to understand it ; -) Crystals are fascinating.

Some people believe that "simple" quartz could be the answer of the future.

Not many people know that (some) diamonds have the property to glow in the dark (luminescence) An interesting property of some diamonds is that they can glow in the dark. When illuminated by ultraviolet light, certain diamonds can absorb the high-energy radiation and re-emit it as visible light. These diamonds are called fluorescent. Some can even continue glowing after the ultraviolet source is turned off. These diamonds are phosphorescent.

To me it is all resonance and we need to find a way to tap the resonance in useful energy.

In the meantime, all those talks about pyramids, I did not see this picture yet (I might have missed it)

Here's more good information

The earliest reference to the sons of Horus is found in the Pyramid Texts
where they are described as friends of the king, as they assist the king in his
ascension to heaven in the eastern sky by means of ladders.

4brightminds.info...

The four gods were also related to the sky, they were "behind the Constellation of the Thigh (the Great Bear), in the northern sky

The Four Sons of Horus became the guardians of the cardinal points of direction.

www.thekeep.org...en.wikipedia.org...

Imsety in human form, protected the liver and was protected by Isis.
Hapi in baboon form, protected the lungs and was protected by Nephthys
Duamutef in jackal form, protected the stomach and was protected by Neith.
Qebehsenuef in hawk form, protected the large intestines and was protected by Serket.

Hapi - North
Duamutef - east
Imesty - South
Qebehsenuef - West



The Four Colors...Red...Yellow...Blue...Green...are The Sons of Horus


Notice the symbols above showing the colors of the Sons of Horus

en.wikipedia.org...

(Gen. 2:10)
A river flowed out of Eden to water the garden, and there it divided and became four rivers.
(A snake (light) flowed from the other side of the Rainbow Bridge, Eden, to mist the lands, and there it divided and became FOUR SNAKES (rivers or light))


So, the pyramid is basically like a prism....

....and the true meaning of the King and Queens chamber is obvious.

1 Corinthians 15:41
There is one glory of the sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory of the stars; for one star differs from another star in glory.
(There is one rainbow of light (red), another rainbow of light (white), and another rainbow of the ascent; for each is a different rainbow.)
Notice the language of the last line........ for one star differs from another star
for ONE (red) star (there is ONE glory of the sun)....differs from ANOTHER(white) star (another glory of the moon) in glory.
It's saying that the first stated red rainbow differs from the second stated white rainbow.


Rainbow covenant
In the summer when the Milky Way flows north to south, it crosses the path of the sun. Each day, the sun moves in an arc from east to west. To Noah, this pairing was the sign of the covenant.
After Noah's flood, when the waters receded, God made a pact with Noah to never cause a flood again. Commonly called the Rainbow Covenant, this bow in the clouds is usually interpreted as a rainbow. That interpretation has some serious flaws.
12And God said, "This is the sign of the covenant which I make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for all future generations:
13I set my bow in the cloud, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth.
14When I bring clouds over the earth and the bow is seen in the clouds,
15I will remember my covenant which is between me and you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall never again become a flood to destroy all flesh.
16When the bow is in the clouds, I will look upon it and remember the everlasting covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that is upon the earth."
17God said to Noah, "This is the sign of the covenant which I have established between me and all flesh that is upon the earth." (Gen. 9:12-17)







The shaft on the pyramids are where the light enters the prism.....that's why they were covered, and maybe why the outside of the pyramids is covered in stone instead of stepped. It was added later to conceal the pyramid's purpose.

reply to post by EartOccupant

---

thank you for that input and I have looked it to the postulations of that theory, and can, as far as I am concerned, dismiss it totally, as it is going in a totally unpredictable direction of theory that dose not compute, the energy of the pyramid dose not go upwards, its sources its energy from the 120 degrees, only the cathode goes vertically and it is benign, it is the dynamic wave that brings the energy earth bound, where by,it seeks to discharge into Earths primordial grid

But nice try in any case, I love people that have the penitential to postulate the impossible in that respect we are very much like minded, all be it miss guided

reply to post by bulla

---

Hahaha! Tnx for the heads up.

Although I was under the assumption it was not an upward flow, but a downward flow. The energy vortexing into the copper (mass) and the Tesla coil working as a tuner, the pyramid being the collector and ground connection.

But I will not further pollute this topic with this sidetrack.

reply to post by EartOccupant

---

I give you credit for your wisdom as this thread is on the correct line of discovery, and thank you, and while I diverse, say that the vents in the pyramids were for the convention of mists and no other reason given, no star observations or anything of that notion that may be put forward by others, they were convection vents for Hydro H2o @Atomic (6) being the mist generated by the hole purpose and precise reason that it was built to emulate which was mother nature her self , people tend to read into that, complicate the real issue, as it is complex to understand let alone, without adding postulations that lead to no where

Originally posted by bulla
reply to post by EartOccupant

---

I give you credit for your wisdom as this thread is on the correct line of discovery, and thank you, and while I diverse, say that the vents in the pyramids were for the convention of mists and no other reason given, no star observations or anything of that notion that may be put forward by others, they were convection vents for Hydro H2o @Atomic (6) being the mist generated by the hole purpose and precise reason that it was built to emulate which was mother nature her self , people tend to read into that, complicate the real issue, as it is complex to understand let alone, without adding postulations that lead to no where

I don't mean to be abusive of anyone's scientific views or understandings, but it is at the stage where I challenge the understood views, of the entire scientific fraternity, and I don't come with cap in hand, like some wilting flower, I come with empirical evidence that can be put to the sword and defies physics, and the known laws,and I can prove it wrong, what more can you ask from a man, and the sooner we realize our error the better we will be for it, and I now know why Albert Einstein backed away from it

reply to post by bulla

---

Well, maybe I'm permitted one more sidetrack.

Not telling you wrong, but somehow I always think the shafts are indeed not vents, but the are receivers (Opposite to your mist emitting / or maybe both)

As the mass of the pyramid block most of the space/earth radiation, the shafts are the channels where entrance of those "waves" are allowed.

In other words, they pointed the shafts at certain points in the universe, that radiate some kind of energy they used in the pyramid.

I hope I make sense ;-)

We know stars, star clusters, systems etc radiate all kinds of waves, they block the un-usefull ones with the massive pyramid and use the useful ones to carefully aligned entrances (shafts) and length

Anyway, I can't back this up, more people did say something likewise as well. . It's a thought I have after a lot of reading of a lot of smarter people then me. Accumulating info over the years. and connecting the dots in my own way.

Peace.


PS. The reason some shafts are blocked could be two reasons:

1: The radiation can penetrate some mass, so no need to make an (vulnerable) opening at the outside
2. They were able to open and close the shaft-door ( not yet discovered)

Last: No offense taken, please proceed as you are ; -)

reply to post by bulla

---

I come with empirical evidence that can be put to the sword and defies physics, and the known laws,and I can prove it wrong

Well then produce it - why the delay? Why keep yakking about it instead of providing it so others can conduct and duplicate the experiments and verify that it works?

Originally posted by bulla

Originally posted by AussieAmandaC
reply to post by bulla

---

Going to study them more now, I wanted to also give you something...

link

I will not pretend to understand all that you've said, it would be a lie, but the things that stuck were seeded there already and makes a lot of sense to me when added to your own.

brilliant thread

Thank you for such a wonderful link, that has now opened the doorway to the crop circles which I have previous replied that, I was not fully understanding, but, I admit, to over site, and tell you now, I understand there meanings, this thread will be remembered for drawing all the knowledge into perspective into mans wisdom and his capabilities

Hello Bulla mate,

you are welcome,

look forward to your insight.

Icanseeatoms.

Originally posted by Hanslune
reply to post by bulla

---

I come with empirical evidence that can be put to the sword and defies physics, and the known laws,and I can prove it wrong

Well then produce it - why the delay? Why keep yakking about it instead of providing it so others can conduct and duplicate the experiments and verify that it works?

Well Hello mr Hanslune,and once again your filibustering and trolling is yet again only proceeded by your arrogance and your ignorance, and given your experience spent on ATS, then it appears you lack any manners, that is common practice to read a thread first, before jumping in head firsts, and making a total fool and idiot out of your self, in front of all who read and posts on this thread

For if you had done so, you would have discovered the empirical litmus for same as you demand,.is all ready posted on this thread, and quite frankly, if there is anyone posting on this thread, that keeps yakking, it you Mr hanslunes,

Now it is obvious to all, that you yet again have shot your self in your own foot, , perhaps if try using some humility and conman sense on this thread you may actually learn something

Goodbye mr Hanslune

Originally posted by isyeye

Remember what I said about diet and sight development...meat eaters versus herbivore/omnivores...it changes the visual spectrum....?

reply to post by Omphale

---

Can you explain some more what you are talking about here?

I don't really have the time to write up an explanation of what I mean, it is very complicated and I have had to found round about ways to explain some of it to myself that may not translate...so I have tried to give you an overview of the chain involved, and highlight some of the key points. If there is anything that isn't clear, feel free to ask and I will try and clarify. But the diet/sight/colour-depth perception relationship should be clear. I hope.

Color vision is the capacity of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light they reflect, emit, or transmit. Colors can be measured and quantified in various ways; indeed, a human's perception of colors is a subjective process whereby the brain responds to the stimuli that are produced when incoming light reacts with the several types of cone photoreceptors in the eye.

Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells containing pigments with different spectral sensitivities, known as cone cells. In humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different spectra, resulting in trichromatic color vision.
The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and it will be finalized in the visual cortex and associative areas of the brain.
For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red receptors, microspectrophotometry has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S- and M-cones do not directly correspond to blue and green, although they are often depicted as such. It is important to note that the RGB color model is merely a convenient means for representing color, and is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.
The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with 'normal' color vision;[2] in non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.[3]

It has been established[21] that the Himba people perceive colors differently from most Euro-Americans - they easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernable for most people. The leading explanation is that the Himba created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades (Zuzu in Himba), very light (Vapa), Vivid blue and green (Buru) and dry colors - probably due to their specific way of life.
An example of the subjectivity of color occurs in a rainbow. In a rainbow (or a spectrum of light projected from a prism), the changes between wavelengths of light are smooth and continuous; there are no breaks or boundaries corresponding to the "bands of color" which are seen subjectively by the eye. A black-and-white photograph of a rainbow shows no band stucture at all, demonstrating that the number of bands, and the bands themselves, are phenomena added to nature by the eye and the brain. They are not objectively real any more than "hot" or "cold."

The evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to diurnal (daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants.[36] Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropods – the only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.[37]
Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some cataract surgery patients.[38] Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas.[39] These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.

en.wikipedia.org...

Tetrachromacy is the condition of possessing four independent channels for conveying color information, or possessing four different types of cone cells in the eye. Organisms with tetrachromacy are called tetrachromats.
In tetrachromatic organisms, the sensory color space is four-dimensional, meaning that to match the sensory effect of arbitrarily chosen spectra of light within their visible spectrum requires mixtures of at least four different primary colors.

The normal explanation of tetrachromacy is that the organism's retina contains four types of higher-intensity light receptors (called cone cells in vertebrates as opposed to rod cells which are lower intensity light receptors) with different absorption spectra. This means the animal may see wavelengths beyond those of a typical human being's eyesight, and may be able to distinguish colors that to a human appear to be identical.
Animals that are tetrachromats
• The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an example of a tetrachromat, containing cone cells sensitive for red, green, blue, and ultraviolet light.[2]
• The mantis shrimp (Gonodactylus smithii) sees at least four basic colors.[3]
• Most birds are tetrachromats.[4]
• Tetrachromacy is also suspected among several species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, arachnids and insects.[citation needed]
Use of tetrachromacy
Tetrachromacy is a tool utilized in specific species to gain and compete at a higher level in the overall environment. The main idea behind the development of a four colored visionary system plays on the idea of natural selection and competition pressures. Species which share this color vision contain a small physiological gain.[5]
Use of tetrachromacy in mantis shrimp
Mantis shrimp utilize tetrachromatic vision utilizing all four wavelengths. Unlike most aquatic organisms, these shrimp use the ultraviolet wavelength for predator detection and evasion.[5]

Humans and closely related primates normally have three types of cone cells and are therefore trichromats (animals with three different cones). However, at low light intensities the rod cells may contribute to color vision, giving a small region of tetrachromacy in the color space.[9]
In humans, two cone cell pigment genes are located on the sex X chromosome, the classical type 2 opsin genes OPN1MW and OPN1MW2. It has been suggested that as women have two different X chromosomes in their cells, some of them could be carrying some variant cone cell pigments, thereby possibly being born as full tetrachromats and having four different simultaneously functioning kinds of cone cells, each type with a specific pattern of responsiveness to different wave lengths of light in the range of the visible spectrum.[10] One study suggested that 2–3% of the world's women might have the kind of fourth cone that lies between the standard red and green cones, giving, theoretically, a significant increase in color differentiation.[11]
Further studies will need to be conducted to verify tetrachromacy in humans. Two possible tetrachromats have been identified: "Mrs. M", an English social worker, was located in a study conducted in 1993,[12] and an unidentified female physician near Newcastle, England, was discovered in a study reported in 2006.[11] Neither case has been fully verified.
Variation in cone pigment genes is widespread in most human populations, but the most prevalent and pronounced tetrachromacy would derive from female carriers of major red-green pigment anomalies, usually classed as forms of "color blindness" (protanomaly or deuteranomaly). The biological basis for this phenomenon is X-inactivation of heterozygotic alleles for retinal pigment genes, which is the same mechanism that gives the majority of female new-world monkeys trichromatic vision.
In humans, preliminary visual processing occurs within the neurons of the retina. It is not known how these nerves would respond to a new color channel, that is, whether they could handle it separately or just lump it in with an existing channel. Visual information leaves the eye by way of the optic nerve; it is not known whether the optic nerve has the spare capacity to handle a new color channel. A variety of final image processing takes place in the brain; it is not known how the various areas of the brain would respond if presented with a new color channel.

People with four photopigments have been shown to have increased chromatic discrimination in comparison to trichromats.[10]

en.wikipedia.org...

β-Carotene is a strongly-coloured red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits. It is an organic compound and chemically is classified as a hydrocarbon and specifically as a terpenoid (isoprenoid), reflecting its derivation from isoprene units. β-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate.[3] It is a member of the carotenes, which are tetraterpenes, synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and thus having 40 carbons. Among this general class of carotenes, β-Carotene is distinquished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule.
Carotene is the substance in carrots that colours them orange and is the most common form of carotene in plants. When used as a food colouring, it has the E number E160a.[4]p119
The structure was deduced by Karrer et al. in 1930.[5] In nature, β-carotene is a precursor (inactive form) to vitamin A via the action of beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase.[3]
Isolation of β-carotene from fruits abundant in carotenoids is commonly done using column chromatography. The separation of β-carotene from the mixture of other carotenoids is based on the polarity of a compound. β-Carotene is a non-polar compound, so it is separated with a non-polar solvent such as hexane.[6] Being highly conjugated, it is deeply colored, and as a hydrocarbon lacking functional groups, it is very lipophilic.

Plant carotenoids are the primary dietary source of provitamin A worldwide, with β-carotene as the most well-known provitamin A carotenoid. Others include α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin. Carotenoid absorption is restricted to the duodenum of the small intestine and dependent on Class B scavenger receptor (SR-B1) membrane protein, which are also responsible for the absorption of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol).[7] One molecule of β-carotene can be cleaved by the intestinal enzyme beta,beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase into two molecules of vitamin A.[8]
Absorption efficiency is estimated to be between 9-22%. The absorption and conversion of carotenoids may depend on the form that the β-carotene is in (cooked vs. raw vegetables, in a supplement), intake of fats and oils at the same time, and current stores of vitamin A and β-carotene in the body. Researchers list the following factors that determine the provitamin A activity of carotenoids:[9]
• Species of carotenoid
• Molecular linkage
• Amount in the meal
• Matrix properties
• Effectors
• Nutrient status
• Genetics
• Host specificity
• Interactions between factors

In the molecule chain between the two cyclohexyl rings β-carotene cleaves either symmetrically or asymmetrically. Symmetric cleavage with the enzyme beta,beta-carotene-15,15'-dioxygenase requires the antioxidant alpha-tocopherol.[10] This symmetric cleavage gives two equivalent retinal molecules and each retinal molecule further reacts to give retinol (vitamin A) and retinoic acid. Beta-carotene is also asymmetrically cleaved into two asymmetric products. The product of asymmetric cleavage is β-apocarotenal (8',10',12'). Asymmetric cleavage reduces the level of retinoic acid significantly.[11]

The most common side effect of excessive β-carotene consumption is carotenodermia, a physically harmless condition that presents as a conspicuous orange skin tint arising from deposition of the carotenoid in the outermost layer of the epidermis.[17] Chronic, high doses of synthetic β-carotene supplements have been associated with increased rate of lung cancer among those who smoke.[18] Additionally, supplemental β-carotene may increase the risk of prostate cancer, intracerebral hemorrhage, and cardiovascular and total mortality in people who smoke cigarettes or have a history of high-level exposure to asbestos.[19]
β-Carotene is stored in the liver and many other organs ("golden ovaries"). Rat studies show that the body cannot convert such stored β-carotene into vitamin A, even if a deficit develops. Heavy consumption of synthetic β-carotene additive from a variety of foods, plus from natural sources, may result in saturating the liver's storage capacity for fat soluble vitamins, so that reserves of other fat soluble vitamins, e.g. vitamin D and vitamin A, are not created - in countries far from the Equator, the summer storage of vitamin D, to be drawn upon during the darker winter, may be particularly important, not least in preventing osteoporosis and other vitamin D-deficiency related problems. In many cases the food color annatto can be used instead of β-carotene, and is not deposited in the body.
β-Carotene has a high tendency to oxidize, more so than most food fats, and may thus to some extent hasten oxidation more than other food colours such as annatto.

en.wikipedia.org...

When converted to the retinal (retinaldehyde) form, vitamin A is essential for vision, and when converted to retinoic acid, is essential for skin health, teeth remineralization and bone growth. These chemical compounds are collectively known as retinoids, and possess the structural motif of all-trans retinol as a common feature in their structure. Structurally, all retinoids also possess a β-ionone ring and a polyunsaturated side chain, with either an alcohol, aldehyde, a carboxylic acid group or an ester group. The side chain is composed of four isoprenoid units, with a series of conjugated double bonds which may exist in trans- or cis-configuration.[1]
Retinol is produced in the body from the hydrolysis of retinyl esters, and from the reduction of retinal. Retinol in turn is ingested in a precursor form; animal sources (liver and eggs) contain retinyl esters, whereas plants (carrots, spinach) contain pro-vitamin A carotenoids (these may also be considered simply vitamin A). Hydrolysis of retinyl esters results in retinol, while pro-vitamin A carotenoids can be cleaved to produce retinal[by what enzyme?]. Retinal, also known as retinaldehyde, can be reversibly reduced to produce retinol or it can be irreversibly oxidized to produce retinoic acid, which then cannot function as the vitamin in the eye.

Many different geometric isomers of retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are possible as a result of either a trans or cis configuration of four of the five double bonds found in the polyene chain. The cis isomers are less stable and can readily convert to the all-trans configuration (as seen in the structure of all-trans-retinol shown here). Nevertheless, some cis isomers are found naturally and carry out essential functions. For example, the 11-cis-retinal isomer is the chromophore of rhodopsin, the vertebrate photoreceptor molecule. Rhodopsin is composed of the 11-cis-retinal covalently linked via a Schiff base to the opsin protein (either rod opsin or blue, red or green cone opsins). The process of vision relies on the light-induced isomerisation of the chromophore from 11-cis to all-trans resulting in a change of the conformation and activation of the photoreceptor molecule. One of the earliest signs of vitamin A deficiency is night-blindness followed by decreased visual acuity.

en.wikipedia.org...

Retinal, also called retinaldehyde or vitamin A aldehyde, is one of the many forms of vitamin A (the number of which varies from species to species). Retinal is a polyene chromophore, and bound to proteins called opsins, is the chemical basis of animal vision. Bound to proteins called type 1 rhodopsins, retinal allows certain microorganisms to convert light into metabolic energy.
Vertebrate animals ingest retinal directly from meat, or produce retinal from one of four carotenoids (beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, gamma-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin), which they must obtain from plants or other photosynthetic organisms (no other carotenoids can be converted by animals to retinal, and some carnivores cannot convert any carotenoids at all). The other main forms of vitamin A, retinol, and a partially active form retinoic acid, may both be produced from retinal.
Invertebrates such as insects and squid use hydroxylated forms of retinal in their visual systems, which derive from conversion from other xanthophylls.

Vision begins with the photoisomerization of retinal. When the 11-cis-retinal chromophore absorbs a photon it isomerizes from the 11-cis state to the all-trans state. The absorbance spectrum of the chromophore depends on its interactions with the opsin protein to which it is bound; different opsins produce different absorbance spectra.

All-trans retinal is transported to the pigment epithelial cells to be reduced to all-trans retinol, the precursor to 11-cis retinal. This is then transported back to the rods. All-trans retinal cannot be synthesised by humans and must be supplied by vitamin A in the diet. Deficiency of all-trans retinal can lead to night blindness. This is part of the bleach and recycle process of retinoids in the photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium.

en.wikipedia.org...

Opsins are a group of light-sensitive 35–55 kDa membrane-bound G protein-coupled receptors of the retinylidene protein family found in photoreceptor cells of the retina. Five classical groups of opsins are involved in vision, mediating the conversion of a photon of light into an electrochemical signal, the first step in the visual transduction cascade. Another opsin found in the mammalian retina, melanopsin, is involved in circadian rhythms and pupillary reflex but not in image-forming.

Vertebrate opsins can be further subdivided into rod opsins and four types of cone opsin, based on differential spatial expression, spectral sensitivity, and evolutionary history.[4] Rod opsins (rhodopsins, usually denoted Rh), are used in night vision, are thermally stable, and are found in the rod photoreceptor cells. Cone opsins, employed in color vision, are less-stable opsins located in the cone photoreceptor cells. Cone opsins are further subdivided according to their absorption maxima (λmax), the wavelength at which the highest light absorption is observed. Evolutionary relationships, deduced using the amino acid sequence of the opsins, are also frequently used to categorize cone opsins into their respective group. Both methods predict four general cone opsin groups in addition to rhodopsin.[6]
Humans have the following set of photoreceptor proteins responsible for vision:
• Rhodopsin (Rh1, OPN2, RHO) – expressed in rod cells, used in night vision
• Three cone opsins (also known as photopsins) – expressed in cone cells, used in color vision
o Long Wavelength Sensitive (OPN1LW) Opsin – λmax in the red region of the electromagnetic spectrum
o Middle Wavelength Sensitive (OPN1MW) Opsin – λmax in the green region of the electromagnetic spectrum
o Short Wavelength Sensitive (OPN1SW) Opsin – λmax in the blue region of the electromagnetic spectrum

Opsin proteins covalently bind to a vitamin A-based retinaldehyde chromophore through a Schiff base linkage to a lysine residue in the seventh transmembrane alpha helix. In vertebrates, the chromophore is either 11-cis-retinal (A1) or 11-cis-3,4-didehydroretinal (A2) and is found in the retinal binding pocket of the opsin. The absorption of a photon of light results in the photoisomerisation of the chromophore from the 11-cis to an all-trans conformation. The photoisomerization induces a conformational change in the opsin protein, causing the activation of the phototransduction cascade. The opsin remains insensitive to light in the trans form. It is regenerated by the replacement of the all-trans retinal by a newly synthesized 11-cis-retinal provided from the retinal epithelial cells. Opsins are functional while bound to either chromophore, with A2-bound opsin λmax being at a longer wavelength than A1-bound opsin.

en.wikipedia.org...

Even though there are a variety of visual systems throughout the animal kingdom, all the visual systems known to date share certain striking similarities in their components. It appears that the underlying molecular machinery of the visual systems is common to all living organisms that possess the ability to see. The first step in vision is light sensing, and rhodopsin is the molecule that absorbs light and thus ‘senses’ light. Light absorption induces changes in the molecular structure of rhodopsin that allow it to activate another molecule, the G protein, which mediates an enzymatic signalling cascade that eventually generates an electrical response in the photoreceptor cell. The signal received from rhodopsin is amplified at this stage since one rhodopsin molecule can activate many G proteins. The downstream signalling cascade depends on the G protein subtype, because different G proteins can act through different pathways.

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov...

Xanthophylls (originally phylloxanthins) are yellow pigments that form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group. The name is from Greek xanthos (ξανθος, "yellow") + phyllon (φύλλον, "leaf"), due to their formation of the yellow band seen in early chromatography of leaf pigments. Their molecular structure is similar to carotenes, which form the other major carotenoid group division, but xanthophylls contain oxygen atoms, while carotenes are purely hydrocarbons with no oxygen. Xanthophylls contain their oxygen either as hydroxyl groups and/or as pairs of hydrogen atoms that are substituted by oxygen atoms acting as a bridge (epoxide). For this reason, they are more polar than the purely hydrocarbon carotenes, and it is this difference that allows their separations from carotenes in many types of chromatography. Typically, carotenes are more orange in color than xanthophylls.
Like other carotenoids, xanthophylls are found in highest quantity in the leaves of most green plants, where they act to modulate light energy and perhaps serve as a non-photochemical quenching agent to deal with triplet chlorophyll (an excited form of chlorophyll), which is overproduced at high light levels in photosynthesis. The xanthopylls found in the bodies of animals, and in dietary animal products, are ultimately derived from plant sources in the diet. For example, the yellow color of chicken egg yolks, fat, and skin comes from ingested xanthophylls (primarily lutein, which is often added to chicken feed for this purpose).
The yellow color of the human macula lutea (literally, yellow spot) in the retina of the eye comes from the lutein and zeaxanthin it contains, both xanthophylls again requiring a source in the human diet to be present in the eye. These function in eye protection from ionizing blue light, which they absorb. These two specific xanthophylls do not function in the mechanism of sight, since they cannot be converted to retinal (also called retinaldehyde or vitamin A aldehyde).
The group of xanthophylls includes lutein, zeaxanthin, neoxanthin, violaxanthin, and α- and β-cryptoxanthin. The latter compound is the only known xanthophyll to contain a beta-ionone ring, and thus β-cryptoxanthin is the only xanthophyll that is known to possess pro-vitamin A activity for mammals. Even then, it is a vitamin only for plant-eating mammals that possess the enzyme to make retinal from carotenoids that contain beta-ionone (some carnivores lack this enzyme). In species other than mammals, other xanthophylls may be converted to hydroxylated retinal-analogues that function directly in vision. For example, insects use 3-hydroxyretinal for visual activities, which means that β-cryptoxanthin and other xanthophylls (such as lutein and zeaxanthin) may function as forms of visual "vitamin A" for them, while carotenes (such as beta carotene) do not. Squids use 4-hydroxyretinal for vision, which requires conversion of yet other xanthophylls present in their diet.

The xanthophyll cycle involves the enzymatic removal of epoxy groups from xanthophylls (e.g. violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, diadinoxanthin) to create so-called de-epoxidised xanthophylls (e.g. diatoxanthin, zeaxanthin). These enzymatic cycles were found to play a key role in stimulating energy dissipation within light-harvesting antenna proteins by non-photochemical quenching- a mechanism to reduce the amount of energy that reaches the photosynthetic reaction centers. Non-photochemical quenching is one of the main ways of protecting against photoinhibition.[1] In higher plants there are three carotenoid pigments that are active in the xanthophyll cycle: violaxanthin, antheraxanthin and zeaxanthin. During light stress violaxanthin is converted to zeaxanthin via the intermediate antheraxanthin, which plays a direct photoprotective role acting as a lipid-protective anti-oxidant and by stimulating non-photochemical quenching within light-harvesting proteins. This conversion of violaxanthin to zeaxanthin is done by the enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase, while the reverse reaction is performed by zeaxanthin epoxidase[2]

en.wikipedia.org...

More Mysterious Nazca Lines From Space
  Posted 6 days ago with 124 member flags

Egypt\'s Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Discovered in Cave
  Posted 17 days ago with 95 member flags

Arizona man finds what he believes will change American prehistoric history....
  Posted 19 days ago with 56 member flags

The Aztec and Norse god of war are both missing one hand.
  Posted 17 days ago with 48 member flags

63,000-Year-Old Modern Human Skull Found in Laos
  Posted 18 days ago with 38 member flags

Multiple Human Species Were Likely The Norm
  Posted 11 days ago with 37 member flags

Plantagenet Legacy Paved Over??? Presidents, Christianity, And Hidden History.
  Posted 11 days ago with 18 member flags

The Sumerian \'Flood-Storm\' weapon.
  Posted 6 days ago with 18 member flags

Newest topics, updated in real-time:

Newest topics getting flags, in real-time:

Newest topics getting replies, in real-time: