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Stress
The effect of stress on eyewitness recall is one of the most widely misunderstood of the factors commonly at play in a crime witness scenario.Studies have consistently shown that the presence of stress has a dramatically negative impact on the accuracy of eyewitness memory, a phenomenon which is often not appreciated by witnesses themselves.
In a seminal study on this topic, Yale psychiatrist Charles Morgan and a team of researchers tested the ability of trained, military survival school students to identify their interrogators following low- and high-stress scenarios. In each condition, subjects were face-to-face with an interrogator for 40 minutes in a well-lit room. The following day, each participant was asked to select his or her interrogator out of either a live or photo lineup. In the case of the photo spread – the most common form of police lineup in the U.S. – those subjected to the high-stress scenario falsely identified someone other than the interrogator in 68% of cases, compared to only 12% from the low-stress scenario.
The latest form of evidence to come under scrutiny is eyewitness testimony. Psychologists have long known about the fallibility of human memory. As far back as 1971, England’s Criminal Law Review Committee warned that over-reliance on eyewitness testimony could lead to false convictions. Going back even to the 1800s, famed psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus’s memory research established the “Forgetting Curve,” which plots how human recollection fades over time, beginning within minutes of the creation of a memory.
Nevertheless, eyewitness testimony remains a vital part of the criminal justice system, and with good reason. It’s the most abundant form of evidence, and it would be nearly impossible to convict guilty people without it. The problem is that it has for far too long been used irresponsibly, without instituting proper controls to ensure that eyewitnesses aren’t prodded into false recollections, that jurors aren’t permitted to give eyewitnesses more weight than good science allows, and that jurors are made aware of the limits and fallibility of human memory.
Studies have shown, for example, that if the police who conduct the identification procedures have knowledge of the case and its suspect, they will inevitably influence the eyewitness's memory of the perpetrator in the direction of identifying the suspect. A "double blind" investigation, where both the interrogator and the witness are unaware of the facts of the investigation or the identity of the suspect, is far more likely to produce a reliable identification.
The acquisition of information into memory involves a three-step process. At each stage of the process, errors are possible. During acquisition, the first step in the memory process, an event is perceived and information "bits" are initially stored in memory.
In the second stage, information is held or retained in memory. In the final stage, memory is searched and pertinent information is retrieved and communicated. In the acquisition stage, information is "encoded" into a person's memory system. However, every detail of an experience is not encoded; the human mind can only process a fraction of the rapidly incoming physical stimuli. Both consciously and unconsciously, the observer determines which details are actually encoded according to where his or her attention is focused.
The physical aspects of an event are obviously compromised by the selective nature of the acquisition stage of memory. However, matters are further complicated by the fact that acquisition also involves a social component. Thus, a witness' ability to perceive accurately is affected by both event factors—those inherent to the event itself—and witness factors—those inherent to the witness.
Several studies have been conducted on human memory and on subjects’ propensity to remember erroneously events and details that did not occur. Elizabeth Loftus performed experiments in the mid-seventies demonstrating the effect of a third party’s introducing false facts into memory.4 Subjects were shown a slide of a car at an intersection with either a yield sign or a stop sign. Experimenters asked participants questions, falsely introducing the term "stop sign" into the question instead of referring to the yield sign participants had actually seen. Similarly, experimenters falsely substituted the term "yield sign" in questions directed to participants who had actually seen the stop sign slide. The results indicated that subjects remembered seeing the false image. In the initial part of the experiment, subjects also viewed a slide showing a car accident. Some subjects were later asked how fast the cars were traveling when they "hit" each other, others were asked how fast the cars were traveling when they "smashed" into each other. Those subjects questioned using the word "smashed" were more likely to report having seen broken glass in the original slide. The introduction of false cues altered participants’ memories.
"Contrary to the popular conception that most people would never forget the face of a clearly seen individual who had physically confronted them and threatened them for more than 30 minutes, a large number of subjects in this study were unable to correctly identify their perpetrator," said Charles Morgan III, M.D., associate professor of psychiatry at Yale School of Medicine.
The study included 509 active duty military personnel enrolled in survival school training. The types of stress were modeled after experiences of military personnel who had been prisoners of war (POWs) -- food and sleep deprivation for 48 hours followed by interrogation.
There were two instructors in the room, a "guard" and an "interrogator." The high stress interrogation included physical confrontation. During the low stress interrogation, the interrogator tried to trick the subject into giving away information.
Twenty-four hours after being released from the mock POW camp, the military personnel were asked to identify the interrogator and guard in a live line up, a photo spread, and a sequential photo presentation. Regardless of the presentation, recognition was better during the low stress rather than the high stress condition. In some cases, those interrogated confused even the gender of the guard and/or interrogator.
"The present data have a number of implications for law enforcement personnel, mental health professionals, physicians, attorneys and judges," Morgan said. "All professionals would do well to remember that a large number of healthy individuals may not be able to correctly identify suspects associated with highly stressful, compared to moderately stressful, events."
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
Much less to treat that massive baseless assumption as fact?
Google Video Link |
Demolition of the tower ABC Balzac Vitry-sur-Seine
The demolition is a step in the restructuring of the Cité Balzac, a "major event" for this area too often decried and yet so rich in skills, commitment, diversity of its people, their solidarity, "says Jean-Pierre Moineau, president of the OPHLM Vitry-sur-Seine.
The tower stood on ABC 14 storeys, and included 168 homes that have succeeded 841 families from 1 August 1967 to 4 September 2006.
This willingness to restructure the district was born out of listening to Balzac tenants and applicants for housing. The main desire of OPHLM de Vitry-sur-Seine is to improve the living conditions of tenants.
Relocation
A Memorandum of Understanding is signed systematically, with each tenant to formalize all the arrangements to support the relocation.
Learn more about the conditions for resettlement
4 The main objectives of this project are:
- Building homes,
- Ensure the requirements for relocation can damage anyone
- Promote urban and social mix (on site and throughout the city),
- Opening up the neighborhood
These objectives have enabled this project to receive a favorable National Agency for Urban Renewal (ANRU). The Convention was signed on 25 January 2007 in the City Hall by Bernard Vitry TOMASINI - Prefect of Val de Marne, Philippe Van de Maele - General Manager of the ANRU, Alain Audoubert - Mayor of Vitry
Technique
On 14 February, the Ferrari-Demolition proceeded with the demolition of 168 homes simultaneously, using a patented technique since 1997: the pressing.
It consists of a building collapse on itself by a horizontal thrust or oblique hydraulic controlled remotely.
Powerful actuators to move the upper part of the building by moving laterally its center of gravity of the fulcrum. The directional movement causes the collapse of the building on itself. This method of demolition is adapted to buildings, towers and industrial facilities that are confined in a dense urban fabric. The security is limited.
The choice of method of demolition was "against the nuisances of each of the respective methods and, while recognizing that whatever option is chosen, the act of destruction, in itself, is relatively violent and painful. Our choice is the one that seemed "less traumatic for the families who lived in these homes," says Jean-Pierre Moineau.
source translated from French
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
All "pancake collapse" means is
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
And the planes striking the buildings took the place of explosives to weaken the columns.
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
reply to post by Devino
All "pancake collapse" means is one floor fell onto another then another then another *you get the idea*. Considering how much of that happend don't you think it's rather silly to expect anything less than what happend?
And the planes striking the buildings took the place of explosives to weaken the columns. Didn't need TnT.
[edit on 9-8-2009 by Watcher-In-The-Shadows]
How is it not fact? Can you produce a video right now where these jets/plumes are coming out of a building that is not controlled demolition???
Post-Lineup Feedback and Confidence Statements
Any feedback from the lineup administrator following an identification can have a dramatic effect on a witness's sense of his or her own accuracy. A highly tentative "maybe" can be artificially transformed into "100% confident" with a simple comment such as "Good, you identified the actual suspect." Mere preparation for cross-examination, including simply thinking about how to answer questions regarding the identification, has also been shown to artificially inflate an eyewitness's sense of her own level of certainty; the same is true when a witness simply learns that another witness identified the same person. This malleability of eyewitness confidence has been shown to be far more pronounced in cases where the witness turns out to be wrong.
When there is a positive correlation between eyewitness confidence and accuracy, it tends to occur when a witness's confidence is measured immediately following the identification, and prior to any confirming feedback. In keeping with this finding, researchers suggest that a statement of a witness's confidence, in her own words, be taken immediately following an identification. Any future statement of confidence or certainty is widely regarded as unreliable, given the host of intervening factors that have been shown to distort it as time passes.
Courts, lawyers and police officers are now aware of the ability of third parties to introduce false memories to witnesses. For this reason, lawyers closely question witnesses regarding the accuracy of their memories and about any possible "assistance" from others in the formation of their present memories. However, psychologists have long recognized that gap filling and reliance on assumptions are necessary to function in our society. For example, if we did not assume that mail will be delivered, or that the supermarkets will continue to stock bread, we would behave quite differently than we do. We are constantly filling in the gaps in our recollection and interpreting things we hear. For instance, while on the subway we might hear garbled words like "next," "transfer," and "train." Building on our assumptions and knowledge, we may put together the actual statement: "Next stop 53rd Street, transfer available to the E train." Indeed, we may even remember having heard the full statement.
So what is an "original memory?" The process of interpretation occurs at the very formation of memory—thus introducing distortion from the beginning. Furthermore, witnesses can distort their own memories without the help of examiners, police officers or lawyers. Rarely do we tell a story or recount events without a purpose. Every act of telling and retelling is tailored to a particular listener; we would not expect someone to listen to every detail of our morning commute, so we edit out extraneous material. The act of telling a story adds another layer of distortion, which in turn affects the underlying memory of the event. This is why a fish story, which grows with each retelling, can eventually lead the teller to believe it.
Once witnesses state facts in a particular way or identify a particular person as the perpetrator, they are unwilling or even unable—due to the reconstruction of their memory—to reconsider their initial understanding. When a witness identifies a person in a line-up, he is likely to identify that same person in later line-ups, even when the person identified is not the perpetrator. Although juries and decision-makers place great reliance on eyewitness identification, they are often unaware of the danger of false memories.
First and foremost, the buildings were designed to withstand the impact of a jetliner travelling at 600mph.
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
I don't know about WTC 7 as I haven't looked into that aspect much.
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
I merely fired back at your silly statement and pointed out how it shows your flawed investigatory approach.
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
reply to post by _BoneZ_
First and foremost, the buildings were designed to withstand the impact of a jetliner travelling at 600mph.
Yes because that was the claim made. It must be true.
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
And as for the rest you do not know how many columns were damaged as that information is not available beyond guessing.
Yet you still haven't posted anything to prove my "silly statement" to be incorrect. Since you've posted more than once after my post and still haven't attempted to post anything to counter my "silly statement" about the plumes, I'll accept your concession and we'll move on. Your continued dodging of my request to prove me wrong about the plumes is noted.
It wasn't just a "claim". It was a 1200-page report backed by many structural engineers. I'll take the word of many structural engineers, past and present, over any anonymous internet debunker any day of the week.
I don't believe for a second that you think there's a conspiracy concerning 9/11. I think that's just a front you use so that you can appear to be a "good" debunker.
No, you do not know. And the information is available if you actually look.
You can count how many exterior columns are damaged on each tower. NIST says 33 on the North Tower and 35 on the South Tower. We'll go with 34 since it's right in the middle.
Then NIST estimates 6-10 core columns were severed or severely damaged from the impacts (although I believe that number is significantly less). We'll go with 8 since it's right in the middle.
The towers had about 240 exterior columns and 47 core columns. That equals 287 columns. Total damaged columns is 42. 42 divided by 287 columns gives us 15% of the total columns of a tower were damaged. That means 85% of the structure in the impact areas alone, was intact. Not to mention the other 105 floors that had no impact damage and were completely intact (until the explosions started going off in the basement and other levels unrelated to the fires).
Originally posted by _BoneZ_
And we're still talking about "pancake collapses" even though NIST dismissed that theory long ago.
Originally posted by _BoneZ_
What's not theory or opinion and what's real fact is that these concentrated jets/plumes that I posted in my last post, have only ever been seen in controlled demolitions and are the direct result of high-powered explosives being detonated.
To deny this is disinformation, and is the exact opposite of seeking truth.
Originally posted by Watcher-In-The-Shadows
I have talked about the plumes and pointed out how air would naturally react in a collapse scenario.